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GUIDING PRINCIPLE #7:
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Preceding Pages
- Looking Ahead
- Part A: Beliefs About Best Practices for Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science
- Part B: Beyond Beliefs: The Guiding Principles
- Structure for the Discussion of Guiding Principles
- Guiding Principles
- Structure for the Discussion of Guiding Principles
- Organization for Discussion of Each Guiding Principle
- 1. Students Understand the Nature of Mathematics and Science
- 2. Students communicate effectively in mathematics and science.
- 3. Students reason effectively in mathematics and science.
- 4. Students are problem-solvers in mathematics and science.
- 5. Students understand their roles in the natural world.
- 6. Students understand historical and societal implications of mathematics and science.
- 7. Students attain and apply essential knowledge and skills of mathematics and science.
- Content Standards
Current Page
- Guiding Principle #7. Students attain and apply essential knowledge and skills of mathematics and science (cont).
- Content Standards
- Part 2. Science
- A. Students understand that there are similarities within the diversity of all living things.
- B. Students understand how living things depend on one another and on non-living aspects of the environment.
- C. Students understand that cells are the basic units of life that can reproduce themselves.
- D. Students understand the basis for life and that all living things change over time.
- E. Students understand the structure of matter and the changes it can undergo.
- F. Students gain knowledge about the Earth and the processes that change it.
- G. Students gain knowledge about the universe, how humans have learned about it and the principles upon which it operates.
- H. Students understand concepts of energy.
- I. Students understand the motion of objects and how forces can change that motion.
Following Page
Knowledge of the universe and of the place of humans in it gives students a valuable perspective. Learning how scientists have discovered the limited amount known about the cosmos, what it contains and how it operates gives students valuable insights into their existence. Students can gain a sense of scale for the very large and very small, as well as a sense of delight and awe about our planet.
PART 2: SCIENCE
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Content Standard A. Students understand that there are similarities within the diversity of all living things.
________________________________________________________Human beings exist in a world filled with living organisms ranging from marine algae to pine trees and from puffins to humpbacked whales. While all living things have many common needs and functions, they act upon those needs and functions in dramatically different ways. Such diversity in form and function is partly a result of the diverse surroundings in which these organisms live. Scientists believe that over time, living things affect other living things (e.g., predator-prey interactions) and the environment.
Scientists group living things by characteristics. This system of classification has changed over time and continues to change today in response to new information.
Performance Indicators Primary
1. Identify the differences between living and non-living things. (S-A1)
2. Describe characteristics of different living things. (S-A2)
3. Explain, draw, or otherwise demonstrate the life cycle of an organism. (S-A3)
4. Design and describe a classification system for objects. (S-A4)
Intermediate
1. Group the same organisms in different ways using different characteristics. (S-A1)
2. Design and describe a classification system for organisms. (S-A2)
3. Describe the different living things within a given habitat. (S-A3)
4. Compare and contrast the life cycles, behavior and structure of different organisms. (S-A4)
Middle
1. Compare systems of classifying organisms including systems used by scientists. (S-A1)
2. Decipher the system for assigning a scientific name to every living thing. (S-A2)
3. Describe some structural and behavioral adaptations that allow organisms to survive in a changing environment. (S-A3)
Secondary
1. Explain the role of DNA in resolving questions of relationship and evolutionary change. (S-A1)
2. Describe similarities and differences among organisms within each level of the taxonomic system for classifying organisms (kingdom through species). (S-A2)
3. Analyze the basic characteristics of living things, including their need for food, water, and gases and the ability to reproduce. (S-A3)
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Snapshots Students in a fourth-grade class work in groups during a field trip to the rocky intertidal zone on the coast. Their task is to inventory the living things and physical features in and around a tide pool. Earlier, in the classroom, their teacher has introduced them to several of the species of plants and animals they are likely to find.
Working in the field, students take turns acting as recorders and investigators. In their lab notebooks, groups record water temperature, air temperature, distance from their tide pool to the shoreline, current weather conditions and the names of the life forms they observe (after confirming the names in a field guide to marine life). Students record names and descriptions of organisms and make drawings for later classroom analysis.
~~~~~ Using gel electrophoresis set-ups on loan from a local college, high school students are attempting to separate a sample of DNA in order to determine what type of animal it is from. A visiting graduate student demonstrates how to use the equipment and remains for the lab in order to serve as a resource. As she circulates among the groups of students, she asks them questions, not only about the lab activity, but about their career plans.
The students run the gel and compare results with known DNA samples from organisms belonging to five different species. Each student identifies the unknown and justifies the decision in writing before the group meets to compare results. Group members discuss varying results and reach a consensus.
During the subsequent class discussion, the teacher asks questions about results, techniques and relevant scientific concepts. Students speculate about how conclusive their technique would be for animals of the same species, same genus, same family etc. All answers are initially considered as possibilities, and a lively debate follows about why the same sample could yield different results. At the end of the discussion, the teacher reveals the identity of the sample.
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Content Standard B. Students understand how living things depend on one another and non-living aspects of the environment.
______________________________________________________All species exist as part of complex and changing systems consisting of the organisms themselves as well as their physical environments. The interactions and relationships in a system are influenced by both biotic and abiotic interactions. Ecosystems can be described by mapping the flow of energy and matter among organisms and between organisms and their environment.
Performance Indicators Primary
1. Identify ways that organisms depend on their environment. (S-B1)
2. Describe how almost all animals' food can be traced back to plants. (S-B2)
3. Give examples of how one change in a system affects other parts of the system. (S-B3)
4. Describe different ecological systems on Earth (S-B4)
5. Describe a familiar local environment. (S-B5)
Intermediate
1. Describe a food web and the relationships within a given ecosystem. (S-B1)
2. Explain the difference between producers (e.g., green plants), consumers (e.g., those that eat green plants), and decomposers ( e.g., bacteria that break down the consumers when they die , and identify examples of each. (S-B2)
3. Compare and contrast physical and living components of different biomes- i.e., regions characterized by their climate and plant life- (e.g., tundra, rain forest, ocean, desert etc.). (S-B3)
4. Investigate the connection between major living and non-living components of a local ecosystem. (S-B4)
Middle
1. Describe in general terms, the chemical processes of photosynthesis and respiration. (S-B1)
2. Analyze how the resources in an ecosystem are finite, limiting the types and populations of organisms within it. (S-B2)
3. Describe succession and other ways that ecosystems can change over time. (S-B3)
4. Generate examples of the variety of ways that organisms interact s (e.g., competition, predator/prey, parasitism/mutualism.) (S-B4)
Secondary
1. Illustrate the cycles of matter (e.g., water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, carbon) in the environment and explain their interrelationships. (S-B1)
2. Compare the processes of photosynthesis and respiration, and describe the factors that effect them. (S-B2)
3. Analyze the factors that affect population size (e.g., reproductive and survival rates). (S-B3)
4. Analyze the impact of human and other activities on the type and pace of change in ecosystems. (S-B4)
5. Describe competition within and among communities and the ways in which a community can be affected by competition.
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Snapshot After reading a newspaper article, students in an eighth-grade class become interested in finding out why the population of songbirds seems to be declining in Maine. One group of students researches the issue using data obtained from researchers via the Internet. Other class members prepare graphs to show trends in the data for a number of species over several years. Another group does a field study of the numbers and types of songbirds sighted at a local bird sanctuary, describing and identifying the bird species observed, as well as recording the eating habits of the birds. Still other students meet with an ornithologist to discuss potential causes of the decline, while another group meets a university researcher to discuss possible effects of a continuing decline in the population.
Back in class, students reconvene into new groups comprised of one representative from each of the earlier groups. The new groups prepare final presentations for third-grade classes studying ecosystems.
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Content Standard C. Students understand that cells are the basic units of life that can reproduce themselves.
________________________________________________________Cells may differ, but they all have common structures that provide protection, help to convert and use energy, and allow the cell to function and reproduce. In complex organisms specialized cells have developed. These cells build the various components, such as tissues, organs and blood, which create the systems to carry out specific functions within the organism.
Performance Indicators Primary
1. Demonstrate that living things are made up of different parts. (S-C1)
2. Demonstrate and understanding that plants and animals need food, water and gases to survive. (S-C2)
3. Explore magnifying devices and how they enable individuals to see in more detail. (S-C3)
4. Provide examples of causes of diseases. (S-C4)
Intermediate
1. Demonstrate an understanding that the cell is the basic unit of living organisms. (S-C1)
2. Describe how single-celled organisms exist. (S-C2)
3. Explore how the use of a microscope allows one to see cells in a variety of organisms. (S-C3)
4. Describe the functions of the major human organ systems. (S-C4)
Middle
1. Compare and contrast human organ systems with those of other species. (S-C1)
2. Prepare and examine microscope slides of single-celled and multi-celled organisms. (S-C2)
3. Describe the structure and function of major organs in human systems. (S-C3)
4. Identify the causes and effects of diseases, explain their transmission, and identify prevention strategies. (S-C4)
5. Describe how body systems work together (S-C5)
6. Give examples of different cells that have different functions in multi-celled organisms.
7. Understand that cells function individually and as components of systems.
Secondary
1. Relate the parts of a cell to its function. (S-C1)
2. Illustrate how cells replicate and transmit information, including the roles of DNA and RNA. (S-C2)
3. Discuss the function of the important "molecules of life" - proteins (including enzymes and hormones), carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids. (S-C3)
4. Explain how the human body protects itself against disease and how the body might lose that ability. (S-C4)
5. Analyze and debate basic principles of genetic engineering: how it is done, its uses and some ethical implications. (S-C5)
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Snapshot Fifth-grade students use compound microscopes to investigate single-celled organisms in the town's pond water. Students work in small groups, with some students drawing pictures of what they have observed, while other students peer into eyepieces, observing. Using identification keys, students attempt to identify and classify the organisms they observe. Groups have been challenged to find as many different types of organisms as possible and to draw them accurately. The teacher has set up a TV monitor and video microscope with a drop of the water, so important characteristics of the microorganisms can be pointed out and misconceptions addressed.
Later the teacher will lead a discussion on the relationship between students' observations and the pond water's unsuitability for drinking. The town's water treatment plant technician will demonstrate some of the chemical and biological tests performed on town drinking water to determine its potability and will show the class how the water is treated.
~~~~~ Groups of high school science students are researching the effectiveness of various household antiseptic solutions. After culturing bacteria on sterile agar in petri dishes, they put a filter paper disc soaked with antiseptic solution on the surface of the agar and then place the dishes in an incubator. Each day, the group counts the number of colonies that are present, until the bacteria covers the surface of the agar, except for a small ring around the paper disc.
The teacher leads a discussion about what the students could do now to compare the antiseptics. Most groups decide to determine how much area around the filter paper is clear, but some take other approaches. At the end of the experiment, students compare results and submit a short research paper describing the findings and the reliability of the data. Students then use their findings in collaborating to develop an advertisement for their antiseptic.
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Content Standard D. Students understand the basis for life and that all living things change over time.
________________________________________________________Just as the physical characteristics of the Earth undergo change, its life forms change as well. These changes may arise through random mutations in nature or be deliberately produced by selective breeding. Regardless of how these traits arise, organisms with attributes that enable them to survive in a given environment are more likely to pass those traits to more offspring than organisms that are not as well adapted. Because of these individual variations within a species, some organisms will be better equipped to survive change in their environment. This may lead to change within a population, and over time, these variations may result in individuals so different from their ancestors that they are considered a new species.
Performance Indicators Primary
1. Explain how fossils show the existence of past life. (S-D1)
2. Identify characteristics that help organisms live in their environment. (S-D2)
3. Draw or describe ways in which an organism can change over its lifetime, sometimes in predictable ways (e.g., butterfly, frog). (S-D3)
4. Describe ways in which individuals of the same species are alike and different. (S-D4)
Intermediate
1. Identify present day organisms that have not always existed, and past life forms that have become extinct. (S-D1)
2. Describe how fossils form. (S-D2)
3. Explain how adaptations, in response to change over time, may increase a species' chances of survival. (S-D3)
4. Describe ways in which organisms may be similar to and different from their parents and explore the possible reasons for this. (S-D4)
5. Describe some reasons why a species might become extinct.Middle
1. Describe how fossils can be used by scientists to trace the history of a species.(S-D1)
2. Explain how scientists use fossils to prove that past life, climate, environment and geologic features in a certain location are very different than they were in the past. (S-D2)
3. Provide examples of the concept of natural and artificial selection and its role in species change over time. (S-D3)
4. Compare how sexually and asexually reproducing species transfer genetic information to offspring. (S-D4)
5. Explain the processes of development and metamorphosis.
Secondary
1. Explain how mutations can be caused by gene mutation or chromosomal alteration and describe the possible results of such mutations on individuals or populations. (S-D1)
2. Describe why the offspring of sexually reproducing species have different survival rates than those of asexually reproducing species under a variety of conditions. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of each. (S-D2)
3. Explain and document the importance of relatively short-term changes (one generation) on a species' survival. (S-D3)
4. Compare and contrast fertilization, zygote formation and embryo development in humans and other species. (S-D5)
5. Analyze a theory scientists use to explain the origin of life. (S-D6)
7. Explain both the evidence used to develop the geologic time scale and why an awareness of geologic time is important to understand the process of change in the universe as well as on Earth.(S-D7)
8. Explain how scientific evidence from organic molecules (especially DNA), cells, fossils, comparative anatomy and comparative embryology supports the idea that all forms of modern life have arisen from common ancestors.
9. Describe how populations can change and new species can arise through differential reproduction and survival of genotypes.
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Snapshots After discussing and observing fossils in the classroom, a group of third-graders has gone to a nearby stream to observe fossils in their natural surroundings. When a fossil is found, students examine it and create a description and sketch in their lab notebooks. After pooling results to determine how many of each fossil type have been located, students find out about the original organisms. They then make their own fossils using an object of their choice coated in Vaseline, Plaster of Paris "mud," and paper cups. The teacher then leads a discussion about how fossilization occurs and why certain things become fossils while other things do not.
~~~~~ Students in a high school science class are investigating reproduction and genetics by crossbreeding Brassica rapa plants (a member of the cabbage family with easily observable characteristics). Parent plants include a pure strain of plants with a variegated leaf and pure plants with plain leaves. Recent probability studies in math class have given students practice in predicting the frequency of certain events.
Following a discussion of dominant and recessive genes, students must predict the ratios of plain and variegated offspring using Punnett squares. After the plants have grown, class members collect their data and enter it into a class database, which is analyzed using techniques learned in math class. After determining the accuracy of their predictions, students will be asked to cross-pollinate plants from the first generation and again predict the ratios of plain and variegated plants in the resulting offspring.
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Content Standard E. Students understand the structure of matter and the changes it can undergo.
________________________________________________________All of the amazing diversity in the properties of matter results from a comparatively small number of basic substances combined in different ways. These basic substances (elements) are made of particles called atoms. These atoms, in turn, are made of smaller particles: protons, electrons and neutrons. These smaller particles are now thought to consist of even smaller parts called leptons and quarks.
Chemical and physical changes can occur in matter. The state that matter assumes (solid, liquid, gas, plasma) depends on several factors, including temperature and pressure. The state and properties of matter can change when it experiences chemical, physical or nuclear forces.
The behavior of matter at the atomic and sub-atomic level is explained by quantum mechanics.
Performance Indicators Primary
1. Show that large things are made up of smaller pieces (e.g., a tower of blocks may be made up of many of the same kind of block). (S-E1)
2. Describe some physical properties of objects (e.g., color, size, texture). (S-E2)
3. Group objects based on observable characteristics (e.g., color, size, texture). (S-E3)
Intermediate
1. Describe how the physical properties of objects sometimes change when the object chemically combines with another. (S-E1)
2. Explain how matter changes in both chemical and physical ways. (S-E2)
Middle
1. Predict and test whether objects will float or sink based on a qualitative and quantitative understanding of the concepts of density and buoyancy. (S-E1)
2. Describe the evidence that all matter consists of particles called atoms that are made up of certain smaller particles. (S-E2)
3. Use the Periodic Table to group elements based on their characteristics. (S-E3)
4. Describe how a substance can combine with different substances in different ways, depending on the conditions and the properties of each substance. (s-e4)
5. Describe how the motion of the particles of matter determines the state of that matter( e.g., (solid, liquid, gas, plasma) and vice versa. (S-E5)
6. Explain how the relatively small number of naturally occurring elements can result in the large variety of substances found in the world. (S-E6)
7. Investigate the similarities and differences between elements, compounds and mixtures. (S-E7)
8. Demonstrate the law of the conservation of matter. (S-E8)
9. Compare different types of mixtures (solutions, suspensions and colloids).
Secondary
1. Trace the development of models of the atom to the present and describe how each model reflects the scientific understanding of that time. (S-E1)
2. Analyze how matter is affected by changes in temperature, pressure and volume. (S-E2)
3. Describe the characteristics and behavior of acids and bases. (S-E3)
4. Describe an application of the Law of the Conservation of Matter. (S-E4)
5. Describe how atoms are joined together by chemical bonding. (S-E5)
6. Compare the physical and chemical characteristics of elements. (S-E6)
7. Describe nuclear reactions, including fission, fusion, and decay, their occurrences in nature and how they can be used by humans.(S-E7)
8. Determine experimentally whether a substance is a solution or a suspension.
9. Use stoichiometry and the mole concept to calculate quantities of reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
10. Describe factors that affect chemical reactions.
11. Describe the inputs and outputs of chemical reactions.
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Snapshots In zipper plastic bags, fifth-grade students have added a spoonful of calcium chloride to one corner, a spoonful of baking soda to the other corner and a small container of a diluted phenol red solution. When these substances are mixed, the plastic bags hold a fizzing yellow liquid.
Students scribble quickly in notebooks, noting temperature changes, the production of gas, a color change and a cloudy substance forming. They test the gas and the precipitate to determine their properties, using techniques they have previously practiced (for example, does the gas support combustion or does it extinguish a flame?).
The teacher assists the class in identifying the products of the reaction and developing a chemical equation. Each student prepares a lab report that contains a detailed procedure (to provide for replication of the experiment) and a conclusion discussing results and their practical application.
~~~~~ In a high school mock trial, chemistry students act as expert witnesses to identify a mysterious white powder found at the scene. Before breaking into groups of six, the class discusses different methods for identifying substances and the benefits and drawbacks of each. In groups, each pair of students performs a different test on the powder (melting point, solubility, pH, conductivity, density etc.) in an attempt to identify it. Each student writes a brief summary of the results of the testing. The group of six then collaborates to discuss the results of each test and to name the unknown powder.
Finally, the group prepares a jury presentation clearly explaining their methods and results by use of charts, graphs and pictures. The group also brainstorms questions that are likely to arise during a hostile cross-examination and practices answers for questions that will challenge their findings.
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Content StandardF. Students gain knowledge about the Earth and the processes that change it.
________________________________________________________The Earth as it appears today is the product of billions of years of changes which may occur slowly and continuously or suddenly. The Earth's surface is changed by surface forces from wind, water and ice as well as subsurface forces like volcanism and subduction. These changes in Earth's surface can occur over the long term (plate tectonics, rock cycle, climate changes, wind erosion) or short term (volcanoes, earthquakes, floods).
Performance Indicators Primary
1. Describe the way weather changes . (S-F1)
2. Analyze relationships between observable weather patterns and the cycling of the seasons. (S-F2)
3. Observe changes that are caused by water, snow, wind, and ice. (S-F3)
Intermediate
1. Describe the change in position of the continents over time. (S-F1)
2. Demonstrate an understanding that many things about the Earth (such as climate) occur in cycles that vary in length and frequency. (S-F2)
3. Describe differences among elements, minerals and rocks. (S-F3)
4. Illustrate how water and other substances go through a cyclic process of change in the environment. (S-F4)
Middle
1. Demonstrate how the Earth's tilt on its axis results in the seasons. (S-F1)
2. Describe how soils are formed and why soils differ from one place to another. (S-F2)
3. Explain the evidence scientists use when they give the age of the Earth. (S-F3)
4. Describe factors that can cause short-term and long-term changes to the Earth. (S-F4)
5. Classify and identify rocks based on their physical and chemical properties, their composition and the processes which formed them. (S-F5)
6. Describe the many products humans, that are derived from materials in the Earth's crust. (S-F6)
7. Demonstrate factors effecting the flow of groundwater. (S-F7)
Secondary
1. Describe how air pressure, temperature and moisture interact to cause changes in the weather. (S-F1)
2. Analyze potential effects of changes in the Earth's oceans and atmosphere. (S-F2)
3. Describe the impact of plate movement and erosion on the rock cycle. (S-F3)
4. Describe ways that scientists measure long periods of time and determine the age of very old objects. (S-F4)
5. Demonstrate how rocks and minerals are used to determine geologic history. (S-F5)
6. Analyze the changes in continental position and the evidence that supports the concept of tectonic plates. (S-F6)
7. Describe how global climate can be affected by large scale circulation of the oceans and the atmosphere.
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Snapshots A pair of kindergarten students works together with a parent volunteer to fill in the daily weather chart in their classroom in preparation for a report to the class. They record temperature and cloud cover and note any precipitation. After giving the morning weather report and a prediction for recess, the two "meteorologists of the day" use weather symbols to fill in graphs that keep track of the number of days with certain types of weather.
~~~~~ In September, fifth-grade students select a 30 by 30 meter plot to study along with many other classes across the country. They regularly examine the types, sizes and quantities of flora and fauna present and keep detailed records in their lab notebooks as well as on a class database. In addition, they collect daily temperature, air and water quality data. Their data are reported via the Internet to a national GLOBE headquarters and will be used to predict major weather and/or climate changes.
~~~~~ Sixth-grade students use a soil auger and collecting bags to gather soil cores in wetland, forest, field and ledge areas. They observe and record data about the soil samples (color, texture, friability), noting differences in soil horizons among the different samples. A class discussion follows, centering around how soil horizons develop and how they show environmental changes. Students divide into groups, each member of the group choosing a different soil type and writing a story from the point of view of a particle in the soil, describing how the particle got to be where it is today. Stories are shared and examined for creativity and consistency with scientific principles.
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Content Standard G. Students gain knowledge about the universe, how humans have learned about it and the principles upon which it operates.
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Primary
1. Explain the cycles of day/night and of seasons. (S-G1)
2. Demonstrate that shadows of objects change based on where light is coming from. (S-G2)
3. Demonstrate an understanding that the sun is one of many stars in the universe and it is the closest star to Earth. (S-G3)
Intermediate
1. Illustrate the relative positions of the sun, moon and planets. (S-G1)
2. Trace the sources of Earth's heat and light energy to the sun. (S-G2)
3. Describe Earth's rotation on its axis and its revolution around the sun. (S-G3)
4. Explore the relationship between the Earth and its moon. (S-G4)
Middle
1. Compare past and present knowledge about characteristics of stars ( e.g.,composition, locations, life-cycles) and explain how people have learned about them. (S-G1)
2. Describe the concept of galaxies, including size and number of stars. (S-G2)
3. Compare and contrast distances and the time required to travel those distances) on Earth, in the solar system, in the galaxy and between galaxies. (S-G3)
4. Describe scientists' exploration of space and some of the objects they have found there (e.g., comets, asteroids, pulsars).(S-G4)
5. Describe the motions of moons, planets, stars, solar systems and galaxies. (S-G5)
Secondary
Energy has many forms which can exert forces and do work. In doing work, energy may be transformed from one form to another or transferred from one object to another. When energy is transformed or transferred, the total amount of energy in the system does not change, since energy cannot be created or destroyed. The conversion of energy from one form to another often involves the generation of heat. Sometimes this heat is a desired result of the energy conversion, and sometimes it presents problems.
1. Describe how scientists gather data about the universe. (S-G1)
2. Research current explanations for phenomena such as black holes and quasars. (S-G2)
3. Explain how astronomers measure interstellar distances. (S-G3)
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Snapshots Using construction paper and a dowel, first-graders make a small flag with their name printed on it. The students plant their flags in the playground. Then for three days the teacher takes them out at recess, at lunch and at the end of each day to observe where the flags' shadows are and to place markers recording the positions of each shadow. Finally, the group gathers in a discussion circle where the teacher asks each student to explain an idea about why the shadows changed.
~~~~~ Middle school students are making scale drawings of the solar system. Each pair of students is given three meters of cash register tape. Working with a chart showing distances in space, students use calculators to determine a reasonable scale, then convert actual distances between the sun and planets to scale distances. They then measure and draw locations for the sun and planets on the paper rolls. When the projects are finished, teams will hang their rolls along a hallway wall and explain their choice of scale. A class discussion explores why they are unable to use the same scale for planet size and planet distances.
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Content Standard H. Students understand the concepts of energy.
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Primary
1. Demonstrate an understanding that the sun gives off light and heat energy. (S-H1)
2. Explain why living things need energy. (S-H2)
Intermediate
1. Identify different forms of energy (e.g., light, sound, heat). (S-H1)
2. Explain ways different forms of energy can be produced. (S-H2)
3. Demonstrate how sounds are caused by vibrational energy.
Middle
1. Analyze the benefits and drawbacks of energy conversions (e.g., in electricity generation). (S-H1)
2. Demonstrate that energy cannot be created or destroyed but only changed from one form to another. (S-H2)
3. Compare and contrast the ways energy travels (e.g., waves, conduction, convection, radiation). (S-H3)
4. Describe the characteristics of static and current electricity. (S-H4)
5. Categorize energy sources as renewable or non-renewable and compare how these sources are used by humans. (S-H5)
6. Describe how energy put into or taken out of a system can cause changes in the motion of particles of matter. (S-H6)
7. Compare sound and light energy.
Secondary
All objects are in motion, if not in an observable way, then on an atomic/subatomic level. The motion of an object depends on the forces acting on it. By understanding the kinds of forces and their magnitudes, the effects of the forces on motion can be predicted and understood.
1. Analyze the evidence that leads scientists to conclude that light behaves somewhat like a wave and somewhat like a particle. (S-H1)
2. Examine and describe how light is reflected and refracted (deflected) by mirrors and lenses. (S-H2)
3. Explain or demonstrate how sound waves travel. (S-H3)
4. Analyze the relationship between kinetic and potential energy of a falling object. (S-H4)
5. Use mathematics to describe the work and power in a system. (S-H5)
6. Describe the relationship between matter and energy and how matter releases energy through the processes of nuclear fission and fusion. (S-H6)
7. Use mathematics to describe and predict electrical and magnetic activity (current resistance, voltage). (S-H7)
8. Compare and contrast how conductors and superconductors work and describe their present and potential uses. (S-H8)
9. Demonstrate an understanding that energy can be found in chemical bonds and nuclear bonds and can be used when it is released from those bonds. (S-H9)
10. Describe thermodynamics and its effects.
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Snapshots Third-grade students are busy finishing musical instruments for a parade celebrating their unit on sound energy. Some students use rubber bands stretched over shoe boxes, some use straws with ends cut in a V shape (two students add a larger straw as a slider) and other students assemble pan pipes made from PVC pipes cut into different lengths. Other instruments include a variety of drums, a selection of kazoos, and some devices using aluminum conduit suspended from strings.
Prior to the parade, students report to the class, telling the name of their instrument, explaining how the instrument makes its sounds using some of the terms they learned and demonstrating how it is played.
The teacher evaluates the report to the class as an assessment of the students' learning, using a scoring rubric that the class developed together.
~~~~~ High school students are studying energy conversions, with particular emphasis on how chemical bond energy can be converted into heat energy. Their task is to work in pairs to construct a calorimeter that will be used to calculate the energy in a peanut. Using simple materials, they design and build the calorimeters to be safe and easy to operate, with special attention to minimizing heat loss.
Once the calorimeters have been constructed and evaluated using a rubric distributed to the students in advance, the students fill them with a measured amount of water at a known temperature and light the peanut. After the peanut has burned, they measure the new water temperature and calculate the heat given off by the peanut, in calories. Students use a "diet book" listing the Calories (kilocalories) present in a peanut, compare their results, and calculate their percent error. Each student then writes a summary of the activity including an explanation of the results and a justification for the design and materials choices for the calorimeter.
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Content Standard I. Students understand the motion of objects and how forces change that motion.
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Primary
1. Develop a variety of ways to describe the motion of an object. (S-I1)
2. Demonstrate that the motion of an object can be changed. (S-I2)
Intermediate
1. Describe the effects of different types of forces ( e.g., mechanical, electrical, magnetic) on motion. (S-I1)
2. Draw conclusions about how the amount of force affects the motion of more massive and less massive objects. (S-I2)
3. Generate examples illustrating that when something is pushed, it exerts a reaction force. (S-I3)
Middle
1. Describe the motion of objects using knowledge of Newton's Laws. (S-I1)
2. Use mathematics to describe the motion of objects ( e.g., speed, distance, time, acceleration). (S-I2)
3. Describe and quantify the ways machines can provide mechanical advantages in producing motion. (S-I3)
4. Describe how electricity moves. (S-I4)
Secondary
1. Use mathematics to describe the law of conservation of momentum. (S-I1)
2. Explain some current theories of gravitational force. (S-I2)
3. Use Newton's Laws to qualitatively and quantitatively describe the motion of objects. (S-I3)
4. Describe how forces affect fluids ( e.g., air and water). (S-I4)
5. Explain the relationship between temperature, heat and molecular motion. (S-I5)
6. Describe how forces within and between atoms affect their behavior and the properties of matter. (S-I6)
7. Recognize that there are situations in which Newton's Laws do not accurately describe motion.
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Snapshot Sixth-grade students have just concluded a unit about motion. They learned how to describe many aspects of motion (speed, distance, time) mathematically as well as qualitatively.
Now, with the help of the technology teacher and their science teacher, they are designing cars that will travel down an inclined track made from lengths of plastic rain gutter. The cars must carry a rectangular eraser across the finish line. The materials the students have available are paper, white glue, and two lengths of coat hanger for axles. The students' goal is to have their cars achieve maximum speed down the track.
The technology teacher presents design factors that students should consider, including mass, friction, air resistance and size, and show examples of ways in which these factors are considered when engineers design cars for the automobile companies.
Following several practice runs during which students test their designs and make small alterations, teams of students calculate their cars' speeds down the four-meter track. They use photogates to determine the cars' final speeds.